A Critical Ethnography of Social Media: The Amateur Hour

 

One thing that is fascinating about social media reaction videos is that they are largely, if not exclusively, the territorial domain of the amateur. What is perhaps even more fascinating is that these amateurs want to remain amateurs. They do little if any research on the shows they are watching. Many Buffy the Vampire Slayer reactors, for instance, do not do any research on the show they are watching and seem blissfully unaware that Fox, when it transferred Buffy into high defintition did it in the most amateurish way possible distorting the original academy aspect ratio and even changing the colour scheme of some shots, particularly special effects shots. Even so-called professionals seem amateurs in skank capitalist America these days. Being sure that they are watching a Buffy text that looks the way those who created Buffy wanted the show to look a does not seem at all important to them though admittedly some of them have switched to the original recording of the show when they learn about Fox's massive cock-up in reproducing the series in hi def

This amateurism and near valorisation of amateurism has a long history both in general and in the United States in particular. The US, for example, has a long tradition of anti-intellectual intellectualism stretching back to the anti-intellectual intellectualisms of old Europe and particularly England and to the rise of anti-intellectual Christianity in the US in the 18th century. Many right wing Christians, for instance, seem to have no problem with the fact that much if not most of their biblical interpretations are  grounded in an almost total lack of historical knowledge and a lack of knowledge of the original languages of the Bible, the book they consider holy, though not holy enough to actually do more than amateur surface research on a book they consider to be the word of god. What is, of course, humorous and absurd about such interpretations is that even right wing Christians cannot agree on the message of the book they consider holy writ. Welcome to a world with multiple domains of blissdom.

Recently, while watching Buffy reaction videos on YouTube, I happened upon EvilQK's Buffy reactions. It wasn't EvilQK's amateurish "readings" of Buffy that drew my attention, however. It was some of the comments reacting to EvilQK's reaction videos on Buffy season one episodes. Many if not all of these, seemed at least to me, to be prime examples of what one might call fundamentalist or amateur approaches to Buffy, approaches that revel in a kind of anti-intellectual intellectual amateurism. Shadowman4710 and Roderick Hale, for instance, posted, in third person god like declarative sentences that are the common currency of amateur fanboy and fangirl reactors, that "Angel" (1:7) was the first really great episode of Buffy. Did they, however, cite any data that supported their "hypothesis"? Of course not. This is amateur hour after all and empirical data related to hypotheses seems totally unimportant to those locked into amateur fanboy and fangirl mode. And many wonder why so many fall for loopy conspiracy theory bullshite these days.

The poster I found most interesting on EvilQK's "Angel" reaction was Paul Knight. Knight, like posters on social media in general, plays in god like declarative sentences implying that only his perspective is the right one, an approach, of course, typically characteristic of fundamentalisms of all types whether Christian, Islamic, Jewish, and more recently, Hindu. Knight goes on to argue that season one of Buffy "sucks" (note the level of "critical" discourse here) and that it was, generally speaking, "lame" and "corny" (note the lack of scholarly definitional precision here). He tried to "prove" this hypothesis by citing audience viewing data. For Knight, season one of Buffy, because it drew smaller viewer audiences than season two, was of lesser artistic value to later seasons that drew greater numbers of viewers, relatively speaking.

Needless to say, anyone familiar with empirical and analytical approaches can find a lot to scratch one's head about when engaging Knight's discourse. First off, Knight, like others of his amateur ilk, fails to recognise the empirical fact that beauty is in the socialised eyes of the beholder. It is an empirical fact that some of those who watched Buffy actually "liked" season one of Buffy and that not every reactor was a fan of the episode "Angel". Many novice reactors, in fact, considered "The Witch" (1:2) to be one of their favourite if not their favoourite first season episodes of Buffy. To get personal, for a moment, I am a fan of "The Pack" (1:6) and "Nightmares" (1:10) and regard both as two of my favourite episodes of Buffy because of their emotional terror, Xander's monologue about not having to look at Willow's pasty face any more in the former and Buffy's father's horrific speech to Buffy in the latter. So, claiming that "Angel" is the first great episode of Buffy is rather problematic given that no evidence is provided to support such a claim and no evidence is given to indicate that the majority of Buffy viewers like "Angel" the best. Furthermore, the claim that Buffy is "lame" and "corny" fails to address the fact that Buffy was intentionally parodic and satiric (I assume this is some of what amateur reactors mean by "lame" and "corny", terms that are as anemically defined as that other favourite of the post baby boomers, "cheesy"), among other tonal things.

Second, Knight's attempt to argue that Buffy season one is "lame" and "corny" because fewer people watched it than in season two and season three ignores several facts, paramount among them the fact that quantity does not and never has been a synonym for quality. A show like Seventh Heaven, for instance, also, like Buffy, on the WB and, in fact, the show that the WB chose to go ahead with over Buffy. drew, by season two and particularly in seasons three and four, substantially more viewers than Buffy (for a variety of different reasons, of course) ever did. Does that mean that Seventh Heaven is superior to Buffy? It drew more viewers after all. I certainly wouldn't make that argument but then I am not a devotee of the commodity aestheticism that dominates so much American culture these days. Furthermore, Knight ignores the fact that Buffy was a mid-season replacement on the WB, hence the twelve episode season one order and no promise of renewal from the netlet. Given that mid-season replacements usually take time to build momentum and increase viewership in the American television landscape at the time (this is now almost passe even at HBO, the network that sold itself by being different), the lower viewing numbers for season one compared to later seasons, though Buffy viewing numbers were akin to the capitalist economy with booms and busts over seven seasons, are understandable. 

Finally, there is the issue of whether Knight understands classical narrative styles, of which Buffy is an example. The fact of the matter is that Buffy season one sets the template for the rest of the seasons of Buffy. In this it is like Lev Tolstoy's classic for a reason Anna Karenina where the early chapters of the book set the template for the narrative, plot, and character developments to come and are, as a consequence, essential to the reader if he or she is to fully grasp the essence of that book. Like Anna, Buffy season one gives us characters who develop over the course of the season and of the show. It gives us the colour scheme that will dominate the show. It gives us the first big bad of the show. It gives us the mise-en-scene that will dominate the show at least through season three. It gives us the tonal complexity that will characterise the show including comedy, drama, tragedy, satire, parody, melodrama, and emotional and other horrors. It is, by the way, this tonal complexity that, I would argue, makes Buffy one of the most interesting television shows ever made. And it gives us the attention to detail and continuity that makes Buffy one of, in my mind, aesthetically successful television shows ever made, something that differentiates Buffy from earlier shows that ultimately (particularly for commercial reasons; both of these cult shows became mainstream and this negatively impacted narrative continuity) were characterised more by discontinuity than continuity, shows like Twin Peaks and The X-files.

I am sure none of these criticisms will be relevant to the amateurs with their uncritical and unreflective fetishisations and universalisations who populate and dominate the landscape of social media these days. it is, however, relevant, to those of us who seek to understand and fully grasp the human comedy, farce, tragedy, and drama in all of its absurdity.

A Critical Ethnography of Social Media: The Radiant Future is Now

 

One would think that after the twentieth century, an era characterised by technological utopianism along with the many negative impacts of this technological change, that many more post-baby boomers would be skeptical of the notion that now, today, is the best of all possible technological worlds. Even a quick peek at reaction videos on social media and particularly YouTube, however, quickly disabuses one of the hypotheses that technological utopianism has declined in the wake of a century of genocide, mass murder, and environmental devastation, much of it, of course, the product of the very technological changes many regard as utopian. After all, while the twentieth century gave us the washing machine, the motor car, aeroplanes, and cotton candy, which was developed in the late nineteenth century, it also gave us the Armenian genocide, the Holocaust, the mass murders at Dresden, Tokyo, Hiroshima, and Nagasaki, toxic chemicals in the environment and in our homes, and climate change. One would think that by no2 many, as many counterculturalists recognised in the nineteen-sixties, would realise the fact that technology, like virtually everything, is a double edged sword.

Recently, while doing ethnography on YouTube, I ran across a reaction video on the first episode of the television show Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997-2003) by one EvilQK. I found a number of things interesting about this "reaction" video beyond the fact that EvilQK did not do much research about the television show (something that seemingly 99% of YouTube reactors do not do) and as a consequence had little sense of the economic realities Buffy had to operate within in season one or the intentions of those who created and made Buffy. Like so many of her generation it became quickly apparent that EvilQK is embedded within a ideology in which current technologies are thought to be inherently better than those of the past and this led her to take a highly critical stance on the special effects of Buffy the Vampire Slayer. According to Evil, if only Buffy had been made today it would have been so much better.

But does the supposed technology primitivism of Buffy and a host of other television and films of the past damn these shows to a special level of critical hell? Many post-baby boomers, of course, enamoured of special effects as they are today, miss several facts. First, given that technological change in film and television is a constant, and perhaps even more constant in the brave new digital era, they don't seem to grasp the simple historical fact that the technologies of today will seem primitive from the vantage point of the future given that technological change is a constant. Many post-baby boomers, in other words, lack a historical sense and consciousness when it comes to television and film and beyond.

Second, and this is something that post-baby boomers don't seem to grasp either, on an aesthetic or artistic level technological change is not always, if we want to engage in a descriptive meets normative analysis, for the better. Black and white, something that seems to be seen by many of todays post-baby boomers as evil incarnate for a variety of reasons--it is coded as old and hence inferior by many and it is seen as less "realistic" than colour television and film--is actually artistically much more interesting than generally bland colour television shows and films. The reason for this is simple, it is difficult if not impossible for colour television shows or films to manipulate light and dark, shadows, fog, or smoke rings, in the way that black and white can and has in the classic past. This is not to say that some colour television or film do not strive for and even achieve visual art. The colour television show Buffy the Vampire Slayer, for instance, uses filters, including red filters for obvious reasons, and the contrast between light and dark in very interesting ways. In many ways, in fact, Buffy is so dark that it seems like a colour television striving for black and white and the aesthetics of black and white. Additionally, the gorgeous colour film Killer Klowns from Outer Space (1988) uses colour in an artistically breathtaking way as anyone who has seen that cult film hopefully recognises. Killer Klowns is, however, the exception that proves the rule that colour is, generally speaking, less interesting and less artistically successful than black and white films in general. Classics are classics for a reason.

This notion that technology today is better than the technology of the past is, of course, grounded in a number of cultural ideologies. It is, as I noted, grounded in the utopian notion that the past is prologue to the present and the present is better than the past, an ideology that goes back at least to the Enlightenment and the industrial revolution. This notion is also grounded in the ideology that realism is always better, an ideological notion also tied to ahistorical notions that the present is more realistic than the past because of superior technologies that, it is believed, make television shows and films progressively more realistic. Technological teleologism. This notion that television shows and films of the present are more real than the past, of course, in order to be believed, must elide the fact that many considered nineteenth century photography and films, particularly talking films in black and white, more realistic than the painting and theatre that came before it. It is a notion that is also grounded in an absurd contradiction because television and shows before digital technologies were actually more realistic since they actually blew up real cars rather than computer simulations and filmed rain that looked more like rain than digital technologies. And this is a notion that, as very few reactors grasp, is grounded in a delusion for neither television or film, including documentaries, are realistic given that they manipulate story, narrative, plot, tone, music, and mise-en-scene for dramatic, tragic, comic, for entertainment and financial, and, if in much less numbers, for artistic purposes. Neither television or film is thus real. Real would be following me around 24-7 as I go to the restroom, cook, clean, or watch television and films, all things that would bore most viewers probably to death. Interestingly, if social media polemicists and apologists for realism really wanted realism in their films they would watch the films of European directors like Ingmar Bergman or Eric Rohmer (though admittedly America had its cinematic and television realism--real locations--in Naked City (film, 1948, television, 1958-1963) and Route 66 (1960-1964). They won't do this because, of course, because they have an emotion based irrational fear and hatred of subtitles. Welcome to the world of the analytically challenged.

In the end, it is, speaking of tone, a tragedy and a comedy perhaps even a farce that so many post-baby boomers who have been socialised into the Hollywood special effects dominated television and film unthinkingly (embodying) think that that form of television and film is the only television show or film worth watching. It is a tragedy because it means that so many don't understand that classic films and television shows are founded on story, plot, narrative, and character development, something lacking in any deep way in so much of the, at best, mediocre film and television product that comes out of Hollywood and its many close cousins these days. It is a farce because this situation where culture and ideology creates reality keeps happening again and again in human communities despite the availability of evidence, at least to those empirically inclined, that shows that the present is not really better than the past. It may be different but in the end humans, who have produced these new technologies, are, like the technologies they produce, a double edged sword. They too are flawed.

A Critical Ethnography of Social Media: Is That Really in the Text?:

 

Ethnography, the study of human behaviour in real world geographical, political, economic, demographic, and cultural settings, has long been at the heart of professional social and cultural anthropology. In fact, going to an "exotic" locale for a period of time to study, observe, and even participate in how real human beings, or at least one important human being, an informant, thinks, behaves, and interacts has long been a central rite of passage in the training of professional social and cultural anthropologists for around a hundred years in the discipline.

The rise and spread of new digital media such as social media like YouTube, has provided ethnographers with a somewhat novel "exotic" setting that they can travel to all from the comfort of their "armchairs" in front of their computer screens, an exotic setting that allows them to explore "real" human behaviour in action in the brave new world of digital media. Today's ethnographer,  for example, can travel to YouTube land and observe what real people think about television shows, movies, books, or music. 

Since the Covid crisis a number of reactors have posted their reactions to the television show Buffy the Vampire Slayer which ran on the WB and later UPN from 1997 to 2003. As always the ethnographer has be cautious about ethnographic work in cyberland since informants, which is basically what social media reactors are, aren't always forthright about their reactions to television shows, films, books, and music. They, after all, tend to give positive responses to what the see and hear since positive responses, almost certainly, garner more comments and likes and hence monies, meagre monies it is true, for the YouTube reactor. Additionally, although one can find commonalities in how reactors react to a television show like Buffy, ethnography is not, as quantitative methodologists love to remind those engaged in qualitative ethnography, grounded in a random sample. And while those who react to Buffy do not constitute a random sample of viewers and reactors they do constitute a convenience sample and as such reveal a lot about how those who chose to react to Buffy react to Buffy.

Recently I have been observing and occasionally participating (by responding in the comments section)  in the reactions of two reactors to Buffy, Dakara or Dakara Jane and JayPeaKay. Both of these reactors are, I suspect, part of one of the post-baby boom cohorts. Both also hail from England, the former likely from Liverpool and the latter from the Home Counties, though whether this matters in a globalised media world is an open question. Both Dakara and Jay been reacting to the third season of Buffy pretty much simultaneously though Jay is slightly ahead of Dakara in his viewing at this point. Both have also been characterised by a similar reaction to the Big Bad of season three (Buffy has a Big Bad that the Scoobies, Buffy and her friends-allies, fight during each of the seven seasons of the show), Sunnydale's Mayor Richard Wilkins.

It is in season three of Buffy that viewers were introduced to the third slayer in the, Buffyverse, Faith. It also introduces, as Buffy does in each new season, to the newest of the Big Bads, the mayor. One interesting aspect of previous seasons of Buffy and of season three of the show are the parallels it draws between a series of doubles or doppelgängers.  In season three, for instance, the show draws parallels between the two slayers, Buffy and Faith, just as in season two the show drew parallels between slayer Buffy and slayer Kendra. This parallelism and doubling, by the way, allows Buffy to escape the iron cage of manicheanism that characterises so many American television cop, fantasy, and science fiction shows. Season three also draws parallels between the two caring surrogate father figures of those two slayers, Giles, the surrogate father figure of Buffy, and the mayor, the surrogate father figure of Faith after the episode "Bad Girls/Consequences". Season three, it should also be noted, also introduces us to doubles of Willow and Xander, two of Buffy's friends and slayerettes, VampWillow, Xander and VampXander, and reintroduces us to one of Giles's doubles, his friend from his rebellious college years and now nemesis, Ethan Rayne. Parallelism and doublings are central aspects to the Buffy text.

While earlier episodes of Buffy season three foregrounded similarities between the two slayers-- Faith, called to be a slayer after the death of by the book Kendra who, in turn, was called to slayerhood as a consequence of the brief death of Buffy in the finale of season one, "Prophecy Girl"--also foregrounds significant differences between the two slayers, differences that turn out to foreshadow things to come in season three and beyond in both Buffy and its spinoff Angel. Buffy is a less by the watcher book then Kenya while at the same time being a more by the watcher book than the rash "want, take, have" Faith. These differences become particularly apparent in the important nearly two hour long episode "Bad Girls/Consequences" in the middle of the season, the episode in which the rash Faith, despite Buffy's attempt to stop her before she sinks her wooden stake into what turns out to be the Deputy Mayor Allan Finch, becomes a murderer and killer. Faith reacts in Nietzschean fashion to her murder of Finch arguing that slayers are outside of and above the law because of the role they play in preserving human life and human society. We more than balance out the scales, Faith claims. For Faith slayers are thus uberfraus who save the world again and again from seemingly endless apocalypses. Buffy, on the other hand morally wrestles with the death of Finch and grieves for the murder of an "innocent". By the end of the episode Faith, who, the Buffy text has told us and shown us on several occasions has issues, goes to work for the mayor after she kills his right hand vampire man, Mr. Trick, while saving, somewhat ironically, Buffy's life in the process.

Despite the clear parallels between Giles and the mayor in the Buffy text--both, the show repeatedly shows and tells us, care deeply for their charges, Giles for Buffy, and the mayor for Faith--both Dakara and Jay interpreted the textual evidence of the mayor being, like Giles, a surrogate father for their respective slayers, in skeptical if not cynical fashion. Both thought the mayor was simply using Faith, manipulating her, solely for his own personal devilish ends, namely, his plan to ascend to pure demon, something that happens in the last episode of the season. 

Why this jaded interpretation of the mayor? Was it the product of the dissonance associated with Faith, someone they repeatedly said they liked, going rogue by taking a job with the mayor? Both Dakara and Jay, after all, mentioned that they didn't think that Faith was evil and that they believed and hoped that at some point she would see the error or her ways and return to the white hated Scooby fold. Was it the product of increasing numbers of sensationalistic media reports since the 1970s about older men (or older women) using young people for their own selfish ends? Was it due to the increasing cynicism of young about politicians, a cynicism that has increased since the 1970s? Was it due to an emotional reaction to the relationship between younger women and older men, one that has become increasingly common since the 1970s? Both Dakara and Jay, after all, had a similar reaction to the romantic interest the 18 year old Cordelia, a sometime Scooby, who, by California law is an adult who can thus marry without parental consent, expressed toward the new watcher of season three, Wesley, a relationship, by the way, played for comedy in the Buffy text. Was it the product of that new life cycle stage, young adulthood with its arrested adolescence, something that can be traced to changes in the economy (globalisation, postmodernism and the dominance of the retail sector with its low paying jobs)? Is it a study diet of manichean Hollywood fairy tale films and television programmes--Buffy is not one of these thankfully--where the villians are pure evil and the good guys are pure good? Is it some combination of these?

Whatever the source or sources of this "reading", what was interesting to me was that the interpretation of the Faith mayor relationship of season three was an extra-textual interpretation that overrode what the text itself actually "said". After all, as the Buffy text clearly and repeatedly shows and tells us, the mayor, who is actually honest and genuine in his expression of family values and fear of germs, is forthright in his love for Faith, a love that Faith needs, a love that the Scoobies cannot provide for Faith, and a devotion that proves to be the mayor's Achilles heel in the finale of season three, "Graduation Day". It is, in fact, the mayor's love for Faith that proves his undoing and allows Buffy and her slayerettes to defeat the mayor in the finale of season three. It is, of course, that fact, the fact that the mayor genuinely cares for Faith, that closes off any counter interpretation of the relationship between the two like the empirically problematic one offered by Dakara and Jay.

Readings of the mayor and Faith relationship are not the only misinterpretations of the text one finds among Buffy reactors. The LexiCrowd and SoFieReacts, for instance, have been waxing apoplectically about Giles's attempt in season six, the, according to Joss Whedon, "oh grow up" season of Buffy, to get Buffy to act responsibly toward her financial and family obligations, an attempt that ultimately results in Giles returning to England since that is the only way he sees of not "standing in the way" of Buffy growing up. Both of these post-baby boomers--GenXers? GenZeders?--have criticised Giles in the harshest of terms on numerous occasions for leaving Buffy. One has to wonder, as one did with respect to those who misinterpret the mayor/Faith relationship, if the reason for this is generational and hence social and cultural, if it is the product, in other words, of generational differences between those who grew up in an era typified by that new life course category of young adult and who are increasingly living into their thirties, in some cases, with their parents and those who grew up in the era of you left home at 18, got a job--which were plentiful and often lasted a work lifetime- immediately became and adult and almost immediately started down the primrose path to having 3.67 children. 

The Books of My Life: Ecological Imperialism

 

As anyone who has studied imperialism, something that has been around at least since the rise of city-states in large scale agricultural societies in the Near East and China, knows there have been and are several types of imperialism. There is, for instance economic imperialism, such as the imperialism associated with the Western run and dominated World Bank and International Monetary Fund, both of which were the latest update of what has happened on a number occasions since the Congress of Vienna in which elite Europeans remade Europe and even the globe in their own image. The World Bank and the International Monetary fund, of course, "loan" monies to semi-peripheral and peripheral nations all the while expecting a little something in return, usually privatisation of their markets and access to their raw materials. There is political imperialism, an imperialism in which one state dominates another politically without colonising that other state, the situation we have today in which the great power US dominates Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom politically. There is cultural imperialism, an imperialism such as we have today in which Western media, such as Hollywood and, to a lesser extent, the UK, dominate the global communications marketplace. There is demographic imperialism, where one demographic group dominates another even if they are a minority as was the case in many of the Pacific Islands after the age of European colonisation or in the US, Canada, and Australia, where Anglo-Saxon Whites became dominant and still are, to some extent. Finally, there is geographic imperialism or colonialism, an imperialism in which one territorial political entity "conquers" or takes over another and colonises it, such as what happened in what we today call North America thanks to British, French, US, and Canadian manifest destiny or a type of imperialism in which the flora and fauna of one part of the world become dominant in another, as was the case in most of the European settler societies in the temperate areas around the globe.

Alfred Crosby's Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press second edition 2004), while touching on other ideal types of imperialism, focuses on geographical imperialism, on the transfer not only of human animals but of other fauna and flora and germs, from, for example, old Europe to a host of Neo-Europes, including Argentina, Brasil, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, after the age of European imperialism, that age where Europe, or more accurately, Western and Northern European, states settled in and conquered, economically, politically, culturally, demographically and geographically, various parts of the globe. 

Crosby notes that geography was central to the rise of greater Europe. Europeans, as he notes, were better at creating settler societies in areas that were climatically similar to their own, such as, for example, much of the United States, the areas that were settled on what became the border between the US and Canada, and the coastal areas of what became Australia. The Europeans were not, as Crosby points out, as successful in making areas that were geographically different from Western and Northern Europe, such as the Canadian shield and the Australian outback, areas that were cold, arid, or dry. Reservoirs built by the US government, of course, allowed for extensive settlement and development in the dry and mountainous parts of what we today call American West though whether these settlements will survive as they are now is an open question thanks to periods of drought--another one of which large parts of the American West are experiencing at the moment. Needless to say, the issue of drought and the settlement of the American West takes us back to the caveats raised by that now famous American government geologist and explorer of the US West John Wesley Powell in the nineteenth century.

While Crosby doesn't ignore colonisation in Ecological Imperialism it isn't territorial conquest that Crosby's book focuses on. Rather, he explores how the first settlers in what would become what he calls the neo-Europes, prepared the way, thanks to the transformations of their new environments, for the far greater ecological transformations (for example, "weeds", cows, pigs, goats, horses, bees, insects, rats, squirrels) of the Europeans after the fifteenth century. Crosby's book also focuses on germs, pathogens, and diseases, such as smallpox, something that both the Australian geographer and historian A. Greenfell Price had explored in his 1963 book The Western Invasion of the Pacific and other of his more geographically focused monographs on the Pacific, and something that Canadian born University of Chicago historian William McNeil had explored in his 1963 book The Rise of the West and in his 1976 book Plagues and People. Germs, pathogens, and diseases, Crosby reminds us, decimated indigenous populations in what became Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, Some scholars estimate, for instance, that some 90% of the Wampanoag of what is today Massachusetts and Rhode Island, were killed by European diseases and particularly smallpox in the seventeenth century. Probably 50% of New Zealand's Maori died thanks to the germs the Pakeha brought with them. As Crosby notes, it is no wonder, given this, that so many Europeans proclaimed the lands they "discovered" empty, something that was, of course, an ideological rationalisation, along with European notions that indigenes were not using the land as god or nature intended, for European conquest, genocide, and colonisation.

Crosby's book is a must read for anyone interested in imperialism in general, in European imperialism in particular, and even more specifically in ecological imperialism, in European settler societies, in human biology or biological anthropology, and in historical botany. It is an excellent synthesis and update of earlier works on ecological imperialism. While Crosby's book did not garner the kind of celebrity Jared Diamond's 1997 book Guns, Germs, and Steel did, it covers much of the same terrain in very readable prose. Highly recommended.